Pancreatic Islet Cell Cancer

Pancreatic Islet Cell Cancer

Pancreatic islet cell cancer is a disease in which cancerous cells first form in tissues of the endocrine pancreas. It is a rare form of cancer, accounting for only about 5 percent of pancreatic cancer cases. Symptoms of pancreatic islet cell cancer may include pain in the abdomen, diarrhea, fatigue, fainting, and unexplained weight gain. Treatment options for pancreatic islet cell cancer may include surgery, chemotherapy, and hormone therapy.

Pancreatic Islet Cell Cancer: An Introduction
Pancreatic islet cell cancer is a rare disease in which cancer cells are found in certain tissues of the pancreas where hormones are produced. It should not be confused with cancer of the exocrine pancreas, which accounts for approximately 95 percent of pancreatic cancer cases.

(Click Pancreatic Cancer for information on the more common form of cancer that develops in the pancreas.)

Understanding the Pancreas and Islet Cell Cancer
The pancreas is about 6 inches long and is shaped like a thin pear. The pancreas lies behind the stomach, inside a loop that is formed by part of the small intestine. The broader right end of the pancreas is called the head, the middle section is called the body, and the narrow left end is the tail.

The pancreas has two basic jobs in the body. The first job is to produce digestive juices that help break down (digest) food. The second job is to produce hormones (such as insulin) that regulate how the body stores and uses food. The area of the pancreas that produces digestive juices is called the exocrine pancreas, which is where approximately 95 percent of pancreatic cancers begin. The hormone-producing area of the pancreas has special cells called islet cells and is called the endocrine pancreas. The endocrine pancreas is where approximately 5 percent of pancreatic cancers begin.

The islet cells make many hormones, including insulin, which help the body store and use sugars. When islet cells become cancerous, they may make too many hormones. Islet cell cancers that make too many hormones are called functioning tumors. Other islet cell cancers may not make extra hormones and are called nonfunctioning tumors. Tumors that do not spread to other parts of the body can also be found in the islet cells. These are called benign tumors and are not cancer. A doctor will need to determine whether the tumor is cancerous or benign.

Symptoms of Pancreatic Islet Cell Cancer
Possible pancreatic islet cell cancer symptoms include:

* Pain in the abdomen
* Diarrhea
* Feeling tired all the time
* Fainting
* Unexplained weight gain.

These possible symptoms of pancreatic islet cell cancer are not sure signs of the disease. Other pancreatic diseases and health problems can cause these symptoms. People who experience possible symptoms of islet cell cancer should see a doctor as soon as possible; only a doctor can diagnose and treat the problem.

Diagnosing Pancreatic Islet Cell Cancer
If a person has what may be possible pancreatic islet cell cancer symptoms, doctors will likely:

* Perform a physical exam
* Ask about the patient's personal and family medical history
* Order blood and urine tests to check hormones levels
* Order other tests, including x-rays and special scans.

Pancreatic Islet Cell Cancer: Stages and Types
Once doctors diagnose islet cell cancer, they will need to order more tests to find out if cancer cells have spread to other parts of the body. This is called staging. The staging system for pancreatic islet cell cancer is still being developed. Islet cell tumors are usually divided into one of three groups:

* Islet cell cancers occurring in one site within the pancreas
* Islet cell cancers occurring in several sites within the pancreas
* Islet cell cancers that have spread to lymph nodes near the pancreas or to distant sites.

Doctors will also need to identify the type of the islet cell tumor in order to plan pancreatic islet cell cancer treatment. Types of islet cell tumors include:

* Gastrinoma (see Gastrinoma)
* Insulinoma (see Insulinoma)
* Glucagonoma (see Glucagonoma)
* Miscellaneous
* Recurrent.

Gastrinoma
A gastrinoma tumor produces large amounts of a hormone called gastrin, which causes the stomach to make too much acid. If there is too much stomach acid, ulcers may develop.

Insulinoma
An insulinoma tumor makes too much insulin and causes the body to store sugar instead of burning it for energy. This will cause hypoglycemia, which is a condition in which there is too little sugar in the blood.

Glucagonoma
A glucagonoma tumor makes too much glucagon and causes hyperglycemia, which is a condition in which there is too much sugar in the blood.

Miscellaneous
Other types of islet cell cancer can affect the pancreas, the small intestine, or both. Each type of tumor may affect different hormones in the body and cause different symptoms.

Recurrent
Recurrent pancreatic islet cell cancer refers to cancer has come back (recurred) after it has been treated. The cancer may come back in the pancreas or in another part of the body.

Treating Pancreatic Islet Cell Cancer
Treatment of pancreatic islet cell cancer will depend on the type of tumor, the stage of the tumor, and the patient's overall health.

Treatments for pancreatic islet cell cancer include:

* Surgery (taking out the cancer)
* Chemotherapy (using drugs to kill cancer cells)
* Hormone therapy (using hormones to stop cancer cells from growing).

Surgery is the most common treatment of islet cell cancer. The doctor may remove:

* Most or part of the pancreas
* The stomach (gastrectomy) if there are ulcers
* Lymph nodes to see if they contain cancer.

Islet cell cancer chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells. Chemotherapy may be taken by pill or it may be put into a vein or muscle by a needle. Chemotherapy is called a systemic treatment because the drug enters the bloodstream, travels through the body, and kills cancer cells throughout the body.

Hormone therapy uses hormones to stop the cancer cells from growing or to relieve symptoms caused by the tumor. Hepatic arterial occlusion or embolization uses drugs or other agents to reduce or block the flow of blood to the liver in order to kill cancer cells growing in the liver.

Pancreatic Islet Cell Cancer: Treatment by Type
Treatment for pancreatic islet cell cancer will vary by the type of islet cell tumor the patient has.

Gastrinoma
Gastrinoma treatment may include:

* Surgery to remove the cancer
* Surgery to remove the stomach (gastrectomy)
* Surgery to cut the nerve that stimulates the pancreas
* Chemotherapy
* Hormone therapy
* Hepatic arterial occlusion or embolization to kill cancer cells growing in the liver.

Insulinoma
Insulinoma cancer treatment may include:

* Surgery to remove the cancer
* Chemotherapy
* Hormone therapy
* Drugs to relieve symptoms
* Hepatic arterial occlusion or embolization to kill cancer cells growing in the liver.

Glucagonoma
Glucagonoma treatment may include:

* Surgery to remove the cancer
* Chemotherapy
* Hormone therapy
* Hepatic arterial occlusion or embolization to kill cancer cells growing in the liver.

Miscellaneous Islet Cell Cancer
Miscellaneous pancreatic islet cell cancer treatment may include:

* Surgery to remove the cancer
* Chemotherapy
* Hormone therapy
* Hepatic arterial occlusion or embolization to kill cancer cells growing in the liver.

Recurrent Islet Cell Carcinoma
Treatment for recurrent islet cell carcinoma will depend on many factors, including the type of pancreatic islet cell cancer treatment the patient had before and the location of where the cancer has recurred. Treatment may include chemotherapy or patients may want to consider taking part in a clinical trial.

Pancreatic Islet Cell Cancer: Clinical Trials
Patients who have pancreatic islet cancer may want to participate in a clinical trial. Islet cell cancer clinical trials are designed to find better ways to treat cancer patients and are based on the most up-to-date information.

Prognosis for Pancreatic Islet Cell Cancer
The chance of recovery (prognosis) will depend on the type of islet cell cancer that the patient has, how far the cancer has spread, and the patient's overall health.

Liver Cancer

Liver Cancer

The fourth-most common cancer in the world, liver cancer is characterized by abnormal cell growth in the liver. While the exact cause of the disease is unknown, risk factors include such things as having a chronic liver infection, being male, and having a family history of the disease. Symptoms of liver cancer include jaundice or a lump near the ribs. The cancer must be detected early in order to be treated with surgery.

What Is Liver Cancer?
Liver cancer is a disease in which cancer cells form in the tissues of the liver. It is not a common cancer in the United States; however, it is the fourth-most common cancer in the world.

This article will discuss primary liver cancer, which is cancer that begins in the liver. Primary liver cancer can occur in both adults and children.

The liver is also a location where a lot of other cancers (like breast cancer or colon cancer) will metastasize (spread). When cancer begins in another part of the body and then spreads, it is called metastatic cancer. Cancer that began in the breast but has spread to the liver (or other areas of the body) is called metastatic breast cancer. Likewise, cancer that has spread to the liver but began in the colon is called metastatic colon cancer.

Understanding the Liver
The liver is the largest internal organ in the body. It is found behind the ribs on the right side of the abdomen. The liver has two parts: a right lobe and a smaller left lobe.

The liver has many important functions that keep a person healthy. It removes harmful material from the blood. It makes enzymes and bile that help digest food. It also converts food into substances needed for life and growth.

The liver gets its supply of blood from two vessels. Most of its blood comes from the hepatic portal vein. The rest comes from the hepatic artery.

Most primary liver cancers begin in hepatocytes (liver cells). This type of cancer is called hepatocellular carcinoma or malignant hepatoma.

Children may develop childhood hepatocellular carcinoma or hepatoblastoma.

When liver cancer spreads (metastasizes) outside the liver, the cancer cells tend to spread to nearby lymph nodes and to the bones and lungs. When this happens, the new tumor has the same kind of abnormal cells as the primary tumor in the liver. For example, if it spreads to the bones, the cancer cells in the bones are actually liver cancer cells. The disease is metastatic liver cancer, not bone cancer, and it is treated as liver cancer, not bone cancer. Doctors sometimes call the new tumor "distant" disease.

Similarly, cancer that spreads to the liver from another part of the body is different from primary liver cancer. The cancer cells in the liver are like the cells in the original tumor. When cancer cells spread to the liver from another organ (such as the colon, lung, or breast), doctors may call the tumor in the liver a secondary tumor. In the United States, secondary tumors in the liver are far more common than primary liver tumors.

Liver Cancer (Cont.)

Risk Factors
No one knows the exact cause of liver cancer. Doctors can seldom explain why one person gets this disease and another does not. However, research has shown that people with certain risk factors are more likely than others to develop liver cancer. A risk factor is anything that increases a person's chance of developing a disease.

Researchers have identified the following risk factors associated with liver cancer:

* Having a chronic liver infection (such as hepatitis B or hepatitis C)
* Having cirrhosis
* Eating foods tainted with aflatoxin (poison from a mold that can grow on foods, such as grains and nuts, that have not been stored properly)
* Being male
* Family history of liver cancer
* Age (In the U.S., people over the age of 60 are more likely to have cancer than younger people.).

Screening for Liver Cancer
At this point, a routine, effective screening test for liver cancer has not yet been developed. Research is currently being conducted to look for a liver cancer screening test using ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), or blood tests.

Symptoms
Liver cancer is sometimes called a "silent disease" because there are usually no early liver cancer symptoms. Pain is a symptom of late-stage liver cancer; therefore, it is important not to wait to feel pain before seeing a doctor.

If symptoms of liver cancer are present, they may include the following:

* A hard lump on the right side just below the rib cage
* Discomfort in the upper abdomen on the right side
* Pain around the right shoulder blade
* Unexplained weight loss
* Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes)
* Unusual tiredness
* Nausea
* Loss of appetite.

These possible symptoms are not sure signs of the disease. Other liver diseases and other health problems can also cause these symptoms. Anyone with these possible symptoms of liver cancer should see a doctor as soon as possible. Only a doctor can diagnose and treat the problem.

Making a Diagnosis
If a person has possible symptoms of liver cancer, the doctor may do a physical exam and ask about the patient's personal and family medical history. The doctor may also recommend additional tests and procedures.

The exams and tests used to make a diagnosis may include the following:

* Blood tests
* CT scan
* Ultrasound
* MRI
* Angiogram
* Laparoscopy
* Biopsy.

Staging Liver Cancer
If a liver cancer diagnosis is made, the doctor needs to know the stage, or extent, of the cancer in order to plan the best liver cancer treatment. Staging is an attempt to find out the size of the tumor, whether the disease has spread, and, if so, to what parts of the body. Careful staging shows whether the tumor can be removed with surgery. This is important, because most liver cancers cannot be removed with surgery.

The doctor may determine the cancer's stage at the time of diagnosis, or the patient may need more tests.

The following stages pertain to adult primary liver cancer:


* Stage I
* Stage II
* Stage III
* Stage IV
* Recurrent.


For adult primary liver cancer, stages are also grouped according to how the cancer may be treated. There are three treatment groups:


* Localized resectable
* Localized and locally advanced unresectable
* Advanced.

Treatment
At this time, liver cancer can be cured only when it is found at an early stage (before it has spread) and only if the patient is healthy enough to have an operation. However, treatment methods for liver cancer other than surgery may be able to control the disease and help patients live longer and feel better.

When a cure or control of the disease is not possible, some patients and their doctors choose palliative therapy. Palliative therapy aims to improve the quality of a person's life by controlling pain and other problems caused by the disease.

Some factors that may influence the treatment for liver cancer include:

* The stage of the cancer (see Stages of Liver Cancer)
* The number, size, and location of tumors
* Whether the cancer has spread outside the liver
* The patient's age
* The patient's general health.

In general, treatments include:

* Surgery (see Liver Cancer Surgery)
* Chemotherapy (see Liver Cancer Chemotherapy)
* Radiation therapy (see Liver Cancer Radiation Therapy)
* Percutaneous ethanol injection.

Choosing the most appropriate treatment is a decision that ideally involves the patient, family, and healthcare team.

Prognosis
A person's prognosis for liver cancer depends on the following:

* The stage of the cancer (the size of the tumor, whether it affects part or all of the liver, or has spread to other places in the body)
* How well the liver is working
* The patient's general health, including whether there is cirrhosis of the liver
* Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) levels.

Statistics
The American Cancer Society estimates that 18,510 men and women (12,600 men and 5,910 women) will be diagnosed with liver cancer and that 16,200 men and women will die of liver cancer in 2006.

Summary of Key Points on Liver Cancer
The following points are important to remember:

* Primary liver cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the liver
* Having hepatitis or cirrhosis can affect the risk of developing liver cancer
* Possible signs of liver cancer include a lump or pain on the right side
* Tests that examine the liver and the blood are used to detect and diagnose liver cancer
* Certain factors (such as the stage of the cancer and the patient's general health) affect prognosis and treatment options for liver cancer.

Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer is characterized by the development of cancer cells in the tissue of the colon or rectum. Risk factors include being 50 or older, smoking, and having a family history of colon or rectal cancer. Symptoms include things such as blood in the stool and unexplained weight loss; however, these possible signs may be caused by other conditions. Treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of treatments.

What Is Colorectal Cancer?
Colorectal cancer is a disease in which cancerous cells originate in the tissue of the colon or rectum. Cancer that begins in the colon is called colon cancer, and cancer that begins in the rectum is called rectal cancer; colorectal cancer is another name for these forms of cancer.

Colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of death from cancer in the United States. In recent years, the number of people diagnosed with the disease has stayed about the same, but the number of people who die from it has decreased. Colorectal cancer is found more often in men than in women.

Risk Factors for Colorectal Cancer
Anything that increases a person's chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Risk factors for colorectal cancer include:

* Being 50 years of age or older

* Having a personal history of any of the following:

o Colon or rectal cancer
o Colon polyps or rectal polyps
o Ovarian cancer
o Uterine cancer
o Breast cancer
o Ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease.

* Having a parent, brother, sister, or child with colorectal cancer or polyps

* Having certain hereditary conditions, such as familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) and hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (also known as HNPCC or Lynch syndrome)

* Certain diets (such as diets that are high in fat and low in fiber)

* Smoking.

Colorectal Cancer (Cont.)
Colorectal cancer is characterized by the development of cancer cells in the tissue of the colon or rectum. Risk factors include being 50 or older, smoking, and having a family history of colon or rectal cancer. Symptoms include things such as blood in the stool and unexplained weight loss; however, these possible signs may be caused by other conditions. Treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of treatments.

Symptoms of Colorectal Cancer
There are a number of possible symptoms of colorectal cancer, such as blood in the stool or unexplained weight loss. However, other conditions may cause the same symptoms.

How Is Colorectal Cancer Diagnosed?
To make a colorectal cancer diagnosis, your doctor may perform one or more tests. Some of these are the same tests used for colorectal cancer screening. They can include:

* Digital rectal exam
* Fecal occult blood test (FOBT)
* Sigmoidoscopy
* Colonoscopy
* Barium enema
* Biopsy.

Stages of Colorectal Cancer
Colorectal cancer stages are based on whether the tumor has invaded nearby tissues, whether the cancer has spread and, if so, to what parts of the body. Knowing the stage of colorectal cancer is important in planning treatment.

The different colorectal cancer stages are:

* Stage 0
* Stage I
* Stage II
* Stage III
* Stage IV
* Recurrent colorectal cancer.

Treating Colorectal Cancer
People with colorectal cancer have many treatment options available to them, such as:

* Surgery
* Radiation therapy
* Chemotherapy.

Many people receive more than one type of treatment for colorectal cancer, and the choice of treatment depends mainly on the type and stage of the cancer. Your doctor can discuss your treatment choices with you and the expected results.

Colon cancer is sometimes treated differently than rectal cancer. Thus, the treatments for the two are described separately and in more detail in the following eMedTV articles:

* Colon Cancer Treatment
* Rectal Cancer Treatment.

You can also learn about the different treatment options based on the stage of the cancer by going to:

* Colon Cancer Treatment by Stage
* Rectal Cancer Treatment by Stage.

Prognosis for Colorectal Cancer
The colorectal cancer prognosis (chance of recovery) depends on the following:

* The stage of the cancer (whether it affects the inner lining of the rectum or colon only, involves the whole colon or rectum, or has spread to other places in the body)

* The person's general health

* Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).

For more specifics on colon or rectal cancer, visit the following eMedTV articles:

* Colon Cancer
* Rectal Cancer.

Brain Tumor Symptoms

Brain Tumor Symptoms

Common symptoms of a brain tumor include headaches, vomiting, and changes in speech or vision. Whether or not a person has these symptoms will depend on the tumor size, type, and location. These symptoms may be the result of a tumor pressing on a nerve or damaging a certain area of the brain. Brain tumor symptoms may also be caused when the brain swells or fluid builds up within the skull.

Brain Tumor Symptoms: An Introduction
A brain tumor usually develops over time. As brain tumor cells start to grow, they spread more deeply into the brain and crowd or invade the surrounding healthy brain tissue. This can cause many of the early symptoms that occur with brain tumor.

But, brain tumor symptoms vary greatly and depend on the tumor's size, type, and location.

Common Symptoms of a Brain Tumor
When present, some of the more common brain tumor symptoms can include:

* Headaches (that are usually worse in the morning)
* Nausea or vomiting
* Changes in speech, vision, or hearing
* Problems balancing or walking
* Changes in mood, personality, or ability to concentrate
* Problems with memory
* Muscle jerking or twitching (seizures or convulsions)
* Numbness or tingling in the arms or legs.

Some of these signs and symptoms may be caused when a tumor presses on a nerve or damages a certain area of the brain. They can also be caused when the brain swells or fluid builds up within the skull.

Brain Tumor Symptoms: Final Thoughts
The symptoms explained above are not sure signs of a brain tumor. Other health problems can also cause these symptoms. So, people with possible brain tumor symptoms should see a doctor as soon as possible, because only a doctor can diagnose and treat the problem.

Brain Cancer

Brain Cancer

It is estimated that in 2005, over 12,000 people died of brain cancer. This type of cancer is characterized by the growth of cancer tissue within the skull. There are several types of brain cancer, such as primary, secondary, and malignant. Common symptoms of the condition include headaches, vomiting, and changes in speech. In general, treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.

What Is Brain Cancer?
Brain tumors are a diverse group of diseases characterized by the abnormal growth of tissue contained within the skull. Brain tumors can be benign (without cancer cells) or malignant (contains cancer cells). Other than leukemia and lymphoma, brain tumors are the most common type of cancer that occurs in children. In adults, brain tumors are usually the result of cancer that has spread from another part of the body, such as the breast or lungs. (Brain tumors and brain cancer are used interchangeably in this article to mean the same thing.)

Understanding the Brain
The brain is a soft, spongy mass of tissue that is protected by the bones of the skull and three thin membranes called meninges. Watery fluid called cerebrospinal fluid cushions the brain and flows through spaces between the meninges and the ventricles (spaces within the brain).

A network of nerves carries messages back and forth between the brain and the rest of the body. While some nerves go directly from the brain to the eyes, ears, and other parts of the head, other nerves run through the spinal cord to connect the brain with the other parts of the body. Within the brain and spinal cord, glial cells surround nerve cells and hold them in place.

The brain directs the things we choose to do (like walking and talking) and the things our body does without thinking (like breathing). The brain is also in charge of our senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell), memory, emotions, and personality. The three major parts of the brain include the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem. Each area controls different activities.

Brain Cancer (Cont.)

Cerebrum

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is located at the top of the brain. The cerebrum:

* Uses information from our senses to tell us what is going on around us
* Tells our body how to respond
* Controls reading, thinking, learning, speech, and emotions.

The cerebrum is divided into the left and right cerebral hemispheres, which control separate activities. The right hemisphere controls the muscles on the left side of the body, and the left hemisphere controls the muscles on the right side of the body.

Cerebellum
The cerebellum is under the cerebrum at the back of the brain. The cerebellum controls balance and complex actions, like walking and talking.

Brain Stem
The brain stem connects the brain with the spinal cord. The brain stem controls:

* Hunger and thirst
* Breathing
* Body temperature
* Blood pressure
* Basic body functions.

Types of Brain Cancer
Brain cancer can be categorized into several different types, including:

* Benign brain tumors
* Malignant brain tumors
* Primary brain tumors
* Secondary brain tumors (also known as metastatic cancer).

Benign brain tumors do not contain cancer cells. However, as benign tumor cells grow, they can cause problems in the brain by pressing against sensitive areas. Malignant brain tumors contain cancer cells and are generally more serious than benign brain tumors.

Primary brain cancer is cancer that begins in the brain. Secondary brain cancer is cancer that begins somewhere else in the body, but spreads to the brain.

In children, most brain tumors are primary tumors. In adults, most brain tumors are secondary tumors that have spread to the brain from the lung, the breast, or other parts of the body.

There are many different types of primary brain tumors. The most common primary brain tumor is a glioma, which begins in the glial cells. Types of gliomas include:

* Astrocytoma
* Brain stem gliomas (see Brain Stem Glioma)
* Ependymoma (see Ependymoma)
* Oligodendroglioma
* Mixed glioma.

When people talk about brain cancer, they are usually referring to glioma.

Other types of brain tumors include:

* Medulloblastoma (see Medulloblastoma)
* Meningioma
* Schwannoma
* Craniopharyngioma
* Germ cell tumor of the brain
* Pineal region tumor.

What Causes It?
No one knows the exact causes of brain cancer, and doctors can seldom explain why one person will get it and another person will not. However, research has shown that people with certain risk factors are more likely than others to develop brain cancer. Specific risk factors for brain cancer include:

* Being male
* Race
* Age
* Family history
* Exposure to radiation or to certain chemicals.

Symptoms

Symptoms of brain cancer will depend on the tumor size, type, and location. A person may experience symptoms:

* When a tumor presses on a nerve
* When a tumor damages a certain area of the brain
* When the brain swells
* When fluid builds up within the skull.

Common symptoms of brain cancer include:

* Headaches (that are usually worse in the morning)
* Nausea or vomiting
* Changes in speech, vision, or hearing
* Problems balancing or walking
* Changes in mood, personality, or ability to concentrate
* Problems with memory
* Muscle jerking or twitching (seizures or convulsions)
* Numbness or tingling in the arms or legs.

These possible brain cancer symptoms are not sure signs of a brain tumor. Other health problems can also cause these symptoms. People who have potential brain tumor symptoms should see a doctor as soon as possible, because only a doctor can diagnose and treat the problem.

Diagnosing Brain Cancer

If a person has possible symptoms of brain cancer, the doctor will perform a physical exam, ask about the patient's personal and family medical history, and recommend additional tests and procedures.

Exams and tests that are used to make a diagnosis may include:

* Computed tomography (CT) scan
* Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan
* Angiogram
* Skull x-ray
* Spinal tap
* Myelogram
* Biopsy.

Tumor Grade
Doctors sometimes group brain tumors by grade -- from low grade (grade I) to high grade (grade IV). The grade of a tumor refers to the way the cells look under a microscope. Brain cancer cells from high-grade tumors look more abnormal and generally grow faster than cells from low-grade tumors.

How Is It Treated?

Treatment for brain cancer varies based on:

* The type of brain tumor
* The size and location of the tumor
* The brain tumor grade
* The patient's general health.

In general, treatment options can include:

* Surgery (see Brain Cancer Surgery)
* Chemotherapy (see Brain Cancer and Chemotherapy)
* Radiation therapy (see Brain Cancer Radiation Treatment).

Patients should work with their doctor to develop a treatment plan that meets their medical needs and personal values. Choosing a treatment plan is a decision that ideally involves the patient, the family, and the healthcare team.

Prognosis for Brain Cancer
The American Cancer Society estimated that 18,500 people (10,620 men and 7,880 women) would be diagnosed with brain cancer and that 12,760 men and women would die of it in 2005.

A person's prognosis will depend on:

* The type of brain cancer (see Types of Brain Tumors)
* The size and location of brain cancer
* The brain cancer stage
* The brain cancer grade.

Bladder Cancer (Cont.)

Bladder Cancer Prognosis
The American Cancer Society estimated that 63,210 men and women (47,010 men and 16,200 women) would be diagnosed with this type of cancer and 13,180 men and women would die of bladder cancer in 2005.

A person's prognosis will depend on:

* The stage of the cancer (whether it is superficial or invasive bladder cancer, and whether it has spread to other places in the body)

* The type of bladder cancer cells, and how the cells look under a microscope

* The patient's age and general health.

Bladder Cancer (Cont.)

Bladder Cancer (Cont.)

Treatment of Bladder Cancer
Treatment options will vary based on:

* The type of bladder cancer (see Bladder Cancer Types).

* The stage of bladder cancer (see Bladder Cancer Staging).

* The tumor grade. (The grade tells how closely the cancer cells resemble normal cells and suggests how fast the cancer is likely to grow. Low-grade cancers are likely to grow and spread more slowly than high-grade cancers.)

* The patient's age and general health.

In general, treatment can include:

* Surgery (see Bladder Cancer Surgery)
* Radiation therapy (see Radiation Treatment for Bladder Cancer)
* Chemotherapy (see Bladder Cancer Chemotherapy)
* Biological therapy (see Biological Treatment for Bladder Cancer).

Doctors can describe treatment choices and the expected results of each treatment with their patients. Patients should work with their doctors to develop a treatment plan that meets their medical needs and personal values. Choosing the most appropriate treatment is a decision that ideally involves the patient, the family, and the healthcare team.

Bladder Cancer (Cont.)

Bladder Cancer (Cont.)

Symptoms of Bladder Cancer
Common symptoms include:

* Blood in the urine (making the urine slightly rusty to deep red)
* Pain during urination
* Frequent urination, or feeling the need to urinate without results
* Lower back pain.

These possible symptoms are not sure signs of bladder cancer. Other health problems can also cause these symptoms. People who have possible signs or symptoms of cancer should see a doctor as soon as possible, because only a doctor can diagnose and treat the problem.

(Click Bladder Cancer Symptoms for more information about the symptoms of bladder cancer.)

How Is It Diagnosed?
If a person has possible symptoms of cancer, the doctor will need to perform a physical exam, ask about the patient's personal and family medical history, and recommend additional tests and procedures that examine the bladder. The exams and tests that are used to make a diagnosis may include:

* Urine tests
* Intravenous pyelogram
* Cystoscopy with biopsy.

Staging of Bladder Cancer
If a diagnosis is made, the doctor will need to determine the stage, or extent, of the disease in order to plan the best treatment. Bladder cancer staging is an attempt to find out the size of the tumor, whether the disease has spread, and if so, to what parts of the body.

The bladder cancer stages include:

* Stage 0
* Stage I
* Stage II
* Stage III
* Stage IV
* Recurrent.

Bladder Cancer (Cont.)

Bladder Cancer (Cont.)

Adenocarcinoma
Adenocarcinoma is cancer that begins in glandular (secretory) cells. Glandular cells, which are found in the lining of the bladder, make substances such as mucus.

Cancer that is confined to the lining of the bladder is called superficial bladder cancer. Cancer that begins in the transitional cells may spread through the lining of the bladder and invade the muscle wall of the bladder or spread to nearby organs and lymph nodes; this is called invasive cancer of the bladder.

What Are the Causes and Risk Factors?
No one knows the exact cause of this cancer, and doctors can seldom explain why one person will get it and another person will not. However, it is clear that the cancer is not contagious, and no one can "catch" it from another person.

(Click Bladder Cancer Cause for more information about the cause of bladder cancer.)

Research has shown that people with certain risk factors are more likely than others to develop the condition. A risk factor is anything that increases a person's chance of developing a disease. Although risk factors do not cause cancer of the bladder, risk factors may act together to increase a person's risk.

Specific risk factors for this type of cancer include:

* Age
* Tobacco use
* Occupation
* Infection
* Treatment with cyclophosphamide or arsenic
* Race
* Gender
* Family history
* Previous history of bladder cancer.

Bladder Cancer

Bladder Cancer

Bladder cancer is a disease in which cancer cells form in the tissues of the bladder, a hollow organ in the lower part of the abdomen. Risk factors for the condition include tobacco use, gender, and family history. A person with bladder cancer may have symptoms such as blood in the urine or pain during urination (however, these symptoms do not always indicate cancer). Treatment options include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, biological therapy, or a combination of treatments.

What Is Bladder Cancer?
Bladder cancer is a disease that occurs when cancer cells form in the tissues of the bladder.

Understanding the Bladder
The bladder is a hollow organ in the lower part of the abdomen that is shaped like a small balloon and has a muscular wall that allows it to get larger or smaller. The bladder stores urine until it is passed out of the body. Urine is the liquid waste that is made by the kidneys when the kidneys clean the blood. The urine passes from the two kidneys into the bladder through two tubes called ureters. When the bladder is emptied during urination, the urine goes from the bladder to the outside of the body through another tube called the urethra.

Types of Bladder Cancer
There are three types of bladder cancer that begin in cells in the lining of the bladder. These cancers are named for the type of cells that become cancerous, which include:

* Transitional cell carcinoma
* Squamous cell bladder carcinoma, also known as squamous cell bladder cancer
* Adenocarcinoma.

(Click Bladder Cancer Types for more information about the types of bladder cancer.)

Transitional Cell Carcinoma
Transitional cell carcinoma is cancer that begins in cells in the innermost tissue layer of the bladder. In this type of cancer, the cells are able to stretch when the bladder is full and shrink when the bladder is emptied. Most types of bladder cancer begin in the transitional cells.

Squamous Cell Bladder Carcinoma
Squamous cell bladder cancer is cancer that begins in squamous cells. Squamous cells are thin, flat cells that may form in the bladder after a long-term infection or irritation.

Angiogenesis

Angiogenesis

What Is Angiogenesis?
Angiogenesis means the formation of new blood vessels. This process is controlled by certain chemicals produced in the body. These chemicals stimulate blood vessels or form new ones. Other chemicals, called angiogenesis inhibitors, signal the process to stop.

How Does It Relate to Cancer?
Angiogenesis plays an important role in the growth and spread of cancer. New blood vessels "feed" the cancer cells with oxygen and nutrients, allowing these cells to grow, invade nearby tissue, spread to other parts of the body, and form new colonies of cancer cells.

Angiogenesis Inhibitors
Because cancer cannot grow or spread without the formation of new blood vessels, scientists are trying to find ways to stop angiogenesis. They are studying natural and synthetic angiogenesis inhibitors, also called anti-angiogenesis agents, in the hope that these chemicals will prevent the growth of cancer by blocking the formation of new blood vessels. In animal studies, angiogenesis inhibitors have successfully stopped the formation of new blood vessels, causing the cancer to shrink and die.

Whether these will be effective against cancer in humans is not yet known. Various angiogenesis inhibitors are currently being evaluated in clinical trials (research studies in humans). These studies include patients with:

* Breast cancer
* Prostate cancer
* Brain cancer
* Pancreatic cancer
* Lung cancer
* Stomach cancer
* Ovarian cancer
* Cervical cancer
* Some leukemias and lymphomas
* AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma.

If the results of clinical trials show that angiogenesis inhibitors are both safe and effective in treating cancer in humans, these agents may be approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and made available for widespread use. The process of producing and testing angiogenesis inhibitors is likely to take several years.

Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Summary
Key information about childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia includes the following:

* Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a cancer of the white blood cells, which are the cells in the body that normally fight infection.

* In childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia, the abnormal cells may collect in the brain or spinal cord, also called the central nervous system (CNS).

* In cancers such as leukemia that appear throughout the body during their earliest stages, screening does not appear to be useful. Instead, children with possible symptoms of acute lymphoblastic leukemia should see their physician.

* Although leukemia cells from different children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia often look similar under the microscope, there are actually many distinctive subtypes of ALL.

* With the exception of prenatal exposure to x-rays and specific genetic syndromes, such as Down syndrome, little is known about the causes of and risk factors for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Risk Groups
Once childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia has been diagnosed, tests are done to determine if the cancer has spread to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), the testicles, or other parts of the body. The extent or spread of cancer is usually described as stages. For childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia, risk groups are used instead of stages.

Risk groups for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia include:

* Standard (low) risk
* High risk
* Recurrent.

Current Treatment for This Type of Leukemia
Different types of treatment are available for patients with childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Some treatments are standard (the currently used treatment), and some treatments are being tested in clinical trials.

Current childhood ALL treatment options include:

* Chemotherapy
* Radiation therapy
* Chemotherapy with stem cell transplant.

There are also three phases of childhood ALL treatment. These phases include:

* Induction therapy
* Consolidation/intensification therapy
* Maintenance therapy.

Choosing the most appropriate childhood ALL treatment is a decision that ideally involves the patient, the family, and the healthcare team.

What Is the Prognosis?
The improvement in survival for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia over the past 35 years is one of the great success stories of cancer treatment. In the 1960s, less than 5 percent of children with ALL survived for more than five years. Today, approximately 85 percent of children with ALL will live five years or more after diagnosis.

The chance of survival for children with ALL is dependent upon a number of factors. The most important factor is receiving optimal care at a center experienced in the treatment of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. However, even with optimal care, some children with ALL are much more difficult to treat successfully than others.

In the past, factors such as age and white blood cell count at diagnosis were commonly used to predict outcome. For example, children who are 1 to 9 years of age have higher survival rates than infants or older children. However, factors such as age and white blood cell count at diagnosis are, at best, crude predictors of outcome.

It is now clear that the patient's subtype of ALL has a powerful impact on survival. For example, infants commonly have a subtype of ALL in which a specific gene is modified. This subtype of ALL is very hard to treat successfully, and only a minority of infants with this subtype of ALL will survive with current therapy. Other subtypes of ALL in which different genes are modified occur more commonly in older children and have a much more favorable outcome.

It is now common practice for the leukemia cells of children with ALL to be tested for the gene modifications. The type of treatment is then based on the particular change that is seen in the leukemia cells.

Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Screening Tests
There are no screening tests for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. In cancers such as leukemia that appear throughout the body during their earliest stages, screening does not appear to be useful. Instead, children with any possible symptoms of the condition should see their physician, who can examine the child and determine if further testing is needed.

Making a Diagnosis
If a child has symptoms that suggest childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia, the physician may first order blood tests. A sample of blood is examined to determine:

* The number of normal blood cells
* What the cells look like
* If any leukemia cells are present in the blood.

For a definitive diagnosis of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia, a doctor who specializes in leukemia examines a sample of bone marrow under a microscope. The sample is obtained by a procedure called bone marrow aspiration. In this procedure, the doctor will insert a needle into a large bone, usually the hip, and remove a small amount of liquid bone marrow for examination.

If leukemia cells are found in the bone marrow sample, the patient's doctor will then order other tests to find out the extent of the disease. These other tests can include a spinal tap, which is also called a lumbar puncture. The spinal tap will check for leukemia cells in the cerebrospinal fluid -- the fluid that fills the spaces in and around the brain and spinal cord.

Subtypes of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
Although leukemia cells from different children with ALL often look similar under the microscope, there are actually many distinctive subtypes of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Most cases of leukemia are associated with changes in genes and chromosomes in the cancerous white blood cells.

The various subtypes of ALL can be identified using special laboratory tests that look for specific changes in genes and chromosomes. It is important for doctors to determine their patients' subtype of ALL because some treatments work better for some subtypes than for others.

Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Causes and Risk Factors of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
No one knows the exact causes of this type of leukemia, and doctors can seldom explain why one person will get ALL and another person will not. However, leukemia research has shown that people with certain risk factors are more likely than others to develop childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. A risk factor is anything that increases a person's chance of developing a disease.

Risk factors for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia include:

* Having a brother or sister with leukemia
* Being Caucasian or Hispanic
* Living in the United States
* Being exposed to x-rays before birth
* Being exposed to radiation
* Past treatment with chemotherapy or other drugs that weaken the immune system
* Having certain genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome.

What Are the Symptoms?
Like all blood cells, leukemia cells travel through the body. Depending on the number of abnormal cells and where these cells collect, patients with leukemia may have a number of ALL symptoms.

Children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia frequently have low amounts of healthy red blood cells and platelets. As a result, there are not enough red blood cells to carry oxygen through the body (anemia). Anemia can cause patients to:

* Look pale
* Feel weak and tired
* Bleed and bruise easily.

Other common symptoms of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia include:

* Fever
* Fatigue
* Frequent infections
* Painless lumps in the neck, underarm, stomach, or groin
* Pain or feeling of fullness below the ribs
* Paleness or pallor
* Easy bleeding or bruising
* Loss of appetite
* Tiny red spots (called petechiae) under the skin
* Bone or joint pain.

In childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia, the abnormal cells may collect in the brain or spinal cord, which is also called the central nervous system (CNS). This can result in headaches with or without vomiting. However, most children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia do not have these symptoms. Leukemia cells also can collect in the testicles and cause swelling.

These and other symptoms may be caused by childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia or by other conditions. Therefore, patients should see a doctor if they experience possible symptoms of acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

What Is Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia?

What Is Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia?

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a cancer of the white blood cells, which are the cells in the body that normally fight infections. ALL is also called acute lymphocytic leukemia. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia accounts for about 3,800 new cases of leukemia each year. Although this type of leukemia is the most common type of leukemia in young children, it also affects adults.

How Common Is It?
Cancer in children and adolescents is rare. However, childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia is the most common cancer in children, representing 23 percent of cancer diagnoses among children who are younger than 15 years of age. This type of leukemia occurs in about one out of every 29,000 children in the United States each year.

Understanding Blood Cells
Normally, the body produces bone marrow stem cells (immature cells) that develop into mature blood cells.

The three types of mature blood cells include:

* Red blood cells that carry oxygen and other materials to all tissues of the body
* White blood cells that fight infection and disease
* Platelets that help prevent bleeding by causing blood clots to form.

In acute lymphoblastic leukemia, too many stem cells develop into a type of white blood cell called lymphocytes. These lymphocytes may also be called lymphoblasts or leukemia cells.

The three types of lymphocytes include:

* B lymphocytes that make antibodies to help fight infection
* T lymphocytes that help B lymphocytes make the antibodies that help fight infection
* Natural killer cells that attack cancer cells and viruses.

In acute lymphoblastic leukemia, the lymphocytes are not able to fight infection very well. Also, as the number of lymphocytes increases in the blood and bone marrow, there is less room for healthy white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. This may cause infection, anemia, and easy bleeding. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia can also spread to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).

Guide To Ovarian Cancer Symptoms And Treatments

Guide To Ovarian Cancer Symptoms And Treatments


As women get older, their risk of having ovarian cancer increases. The diagnosis of ovarian cancer brings with it many questions that needs clear understandable answers. Knowing and having more information about this disease can make it easier for women and their families to handle the challenges they face. Cancer researchers continue to study and learn more about ovarian cancer.

The ovaries are a pair of organs in the female reproductive system. They are located in a woman's pelvis, one on each side of the uterus (the hollow, pear-shaped organ where a baby grows). Each ovary is about the size and shape of an almond and they can often be felt by a doctor during bi-manual portion of a pelvic examination. The ovaries have to main functions: production of eggs and production of female hormones (chemicals that control the way certain cells or organs functions). Every month during menstrual cycle, an egg is released from one ovary in a process called ovulation. The ovaries are also the main source of female hormones estrogen and progesterone. These hormones influence the development of a woman's breasts, body shape, and body hair. They also regulate the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.

A malignant tumor (mass of cells that form due to abnormal uncontrollable production of cells in the body) that begins in the ovaries is called ovarian cancer. There are numerous types of ovarian cancer. Ovarian cancer that begins on the surface of the ovary (epithelial carcinoma) is the most common type. Ovarian cancer that begins in the egg-producing cells (germ cell tumors) and cancer that begins in the supportive tissue surrounding the ovaries (stromal tumors) are rare. In a process called shedding, ovarian cancer cells can break away from the ovary and spread to other tissues and organs; when it sheds, it tends to seed (form new tumors) on the peritoneum (the large membrane that lines the abdomen) and on the diaphragm (the thin muscle that separates the chest from the abdomen). Fluid may gather in the abdomen, this condition is known as ascites. It may make a woman feel bloated, or her abdomen may look swollen. Ovarian cancer cells can also enter the bloodstream or lymphatic system the tissues and organs that produce and store cells that fight infection and disease). Once in the bloodstream or lymphatic system, the cancer cells can travel and form new tumors in other parts of the body.

The risk for developing ovarian cancer appears to be affected by several factors. The more children a woman has, the lower her risk of ovarian cancer. Early age at first pregnancy, older ages of final pregnancy, and the use of some oral contraceptive pills have also been shown to have a protective effect. Ovarian cancer is reduced in women after tubal ligation. Risk factors for getting ovarian cancer includes age, the older a woman becomes, the highert the chances of getting it; family history, particulary family members affected at an early age; other factors that have been investigated, such as talc use, asbestos exposure, high dietary fat content, and childhood mumps infection, are controversial and have not been definitively proven.

Early stages of this cancer usually do not cause any symptoms, and even when it does produce symptoms, they are often very non-specific and don't point towards diagnosis of ovarian cancer. When the tumor grows in size it produces a variety of problems that includes abdominal swelling or abdominal pain, vaginal bleeding between periods or after menopause, bloating, gas, indigestion or cramps, pelvic pain loss of appetite, feeling full after a small meal, or feeling full very easily, changes in bowel or bladder habits, and weight loss or weight gain. These symptoms are non-specific and could present a variety of different conditions; however checking with your doctor is advisable if you develop any of these problems.

Treatment of the disease depends on a number of factors including the stage of the disease and the general health of the patient. Surgery is the usual initial treatment for women diagnosed with ovarian cancer. Studies have shown that surgery performed by a specialist in gynecologic oncology usually result in a higher rate of cure. Other treatment includes chemotherapy and radiationa therapy.

The National Cancer Institute is supporting and conducting research on the causes and prevention of ovarian cancer. Cancer support groups provide an environment where cancer patients can talk about living with cancer with others who may be having similar experiences. This helps patients in coping up with the emotional aspects of their disease.

What Is The Truth About Leukemia, And What Can It Mean To Me?

What Is The Truth About Leukemia, And What Can It Mean To Me?


Leukemia hits about 10 times more children than adults. The ACS or American Cancer Society calculates that this year, approximately 30 thousand new cases of leukemia of 2 thousand children and about 27 thousand adults in the U.S. will be diagnosed.

Leukemia, a type of cancer, starts in the inner, soft portion of your blood-forming cell bones, known as bone marrows. This happens when excessive growth of white blood cells is present in your blood, referred to as leukocytes.

Under normal conditions, the blood-forming or hematopoietic cells in your bone marrow produce leukocytes in order to protect your body from infection caused by bacteria and viruses.

However, when some of the leukocytes are broken and stay in their immature state, they turn out to be poor fighters of infection that excessively multiply and never die as should be the case.

Leukemic cells then build up and decrease the manufacturing of oxygen-carrying eythrocytes (red blood cells), normal leukocytes and platelets (blood clotting cells)If left untreated, then the excess leukemic cells overpower your bone marrow and enter your bloodstream, eventually invading other body parts like the spleen, lymph nodes, liver as well as the central nervous system consisting of the spinal cord and brain.

Leukemia symptoms

In children, due to defect of white blood cells that fight infection, they can experience intensified infections and fever episodes.

Other common leukemia symptoms include:

1. Bleed and bruise very easily, going through recurrent nosebleeds or bleed unusually long after going thru minor cuts.

2. Aching joints or inside the bones, sometimes bringing about a limp

3. Swollen or inflamed lymph nodes

4. Poor appetite

5. Abnormal tired feeling

6. Become anemic and experience shortness of breath during playing.

Forms of leukemia

Leukemia and leukemia symptoms can be either chronic or acute and myelogenous or lymphocytic.

In acute leukemia, the abnormally produced blood cells generally are blasts which remained immature thus can not anymore perform their normal tasks. The blasts rapidly increase so the disease quickly worsens.

In chronic leukemia, a few blast cells can be present but generally these are more mature or developed cells that can perform some normal tasks.

These cells appear to be mature but not entirely normal, because these live much longer and result to certain types of white blood cells accumulation. The blasts increases not as rapidly as in acute leukemia, therefore worsens gradually.

Myelogenous and Lymphocytic leukemia refers to the 2 different types of cells where leukemia began. Lymphocytic leukemia grow from lymphocytes and Myelogenous leukemia grow from monocyte white blood cells or granulocyte white blood cells.

Treatment

There are 2 stages of luekemia treatment namely induction therapy and maintenance therapy. The main focus in induction therapy is to lessen leukemic cells and induce a remission.

Remission is the stage whereby the cancer already is responding well to treatment or it is under control.

Remission may be either complete or partial. When the cancer is within complete remission all symptoms and signs of the cancer disappears. Partial remission means the cancer has shrunk but did not disappear completely.

Remissions may last from several number of weeks to years. Complete remissions can go on for years and can be confirmed cures.

The second stage of leukemia treatment happens after an individual suffering from leukemia goes totally into remission. This stage aims to kill remaining cancer cells and extend the remission period for as prolonged as possible.

1. Chemotherapy uses drugs in order to kill leukemia cancer cells.

2. Radiation therapy employs x-rays or other forms of high-energy rays in order to shrink tumors and kill leukemia cancer cells.

3. Bone marrow transplant is a procedure wherein the patient's affected bone marrow is changed with a healthy marrow.

Note that most cancers may be prevented or avoided by making changes in your diet or lifestyle which can lessen risk factors. In leukemia, unfortunately no risk factors are known; therefore it is difficult to prevent it.

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How To Treat Cervical Cancer

How To Treat Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer is a malignancy of the cervix. All over the globe it is the second most common cancer in women. Scientists are studying cervical cancer to find out more about how it develops and they are looking at better ways to detect and treat it.

This illness sets in when cells in the cervix begin to grow uncontrollably forming a mass of extra tissue called tumor. Malignant tumors are cancer cells, and can invade and damage adjacent tissues and organs. Cancer cells can also break away from a malignant tumor and enter the lymphatic system or the bloodstream. This is how cervical cancer spread to other parts of the body such as nearby lymph nodes, the rectum, the bladder, the bones of the spine, and the lungs. Spreading of the cancer is a process.

Cancer of the cervix is different from cancer that begins in other parts of the uterus and requires different treatment. Most cancers of this kind are squamous cell carcinomas. Squamous cells are thin, flat cells that form the surface of the cervix. The second most common form is adenocarcinoma which comes from cells that make up glands in the cervix.

Cancer of the cervix may present vaginal bleeding but symptoms may be absent until the cancer is in advanced stages, which has made cervical cancer the focus of intense screening efforts utilizing the Pap smear. Most scientific studies have found that human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is responsible for ninety percent of the cases of cervical cancer. HPV is a sexually transmitted disease that is incredibly common in the population. HPV is the virus that causes genital warts, but having genital warts doesn't necessarily mean getting cervical cancer. There are different subtypes, or strains, of HPV and only certain subtypes are likely to cause cervical cancer, and the subtypes that cause warts are unlikely to develop the illness. However, almost all cancers of the cervix haveevidence of HPV virus in them, so infection is a major risk factor for developing it. Because infection with a sexually transmitted disease is a risk factor for cervical cancer, any risk factors for developing sexually transmitted diseases are also risk factors for developing the disease. Another important risk factor is smoking; smokers are at least twice as likely as non-smokers to develop cervix tumors.

Symptoms of the disease may not appear during the early stages of the cancer that is why it is important to have screening Pap tests. When the tumor grows in size, it produces a variety of symptoms including abnormal bleeding (including bleeding after sexual intercourse, in between periods, heavier/longer lasting menstrual bleeding, or bleeding after menopause), abnormal vaginal discharge (may be foul smelling), pelvic or back pain, pain on urination, blood in the stool or urine. Although having these symptoms may not mean that you have cervical cancer, it is always best to consult with your doctor once you experience any of these problems. If it is detected early, it can be treated without impairing fertility.

St. Jude Unlocks Mystery of Very Aggressive Leukemia

St. Jude Unlocks Mystery of Very Aggressive Leukemia

- Loss of Arf gene in acute lymphoblastic leukemia makes some forms of this cancer resistant to treatment with imatinib, but blocking JAK kinases can restore the sensitivity of cells to this drug

Investigators at St. Jude have used mouse models to determine why some forms of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) are very aggressive and resistant to a drug that is effective in treating a different type of leukemia.

The investigators found that the combination of a mutation called Bcr-Abl and the loss of both copies of the tumor suppressor gene Arf in bone marrow cells triggers an aggressive form of ALL. Inactivation of both Arf genes allowed the multiplication of leukemic cells that did not respond to the drug imatinib (Gleevec(R)). Imatinib is already successfully used to treat chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), another blood cell cancer caused by the Bcr-Abl mutation.

The St. Jude team also found that Arf is not inactivated in CML patients who respond to imatinib. This is in contrast to ALL, in which Arf loss frequently occurs and imatinib treatment is far less effective. "This suggested to us that inactivation of Arf in ALL cells expressing the Bcr-Abl enzyme gives these cells a strong proliferative (cell multiplication) advantage. This advantage might contribute to imatinib resistance in some way," said Charles Sherr, M.D., Ph.D., a Howard Hughes Medical Institute Investigator and co-chair of the St. Jude Department of Genetics and Tumor Cell Biology. Sherr is senior author of a report on this work that appears in the April 17 issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

The Arf gene was discovered at St. Jude in 1995 in the laboratory of Sherr and Martine Roussel, Ph.D., a member of the Department of Genetics and Tumor Cell Biology. Roussel is a co-author of the paper.

Moreover, the study provided evidence that imatinib resistance in mouse models of ALL did not depend strictly on the presence of Bcr-Abl and the loss of Arf genes in the cancer cells themselves. Rather, drug resistance reflected an interaction of the tumor cells with specific growth-promoting factors produced in the mice. After removal of leukemic cells from mice that had failed imatinib therapy, compounds that inhibited enzymes called JAK kinases restored the cells' sensitivity to imatinib.

The findings of this study are important because they suggest why imatinib may fail to cause remission of ALL in patients with the Bcr-Abl mutation, and they point to a strategy for overcoming this resistance, according to the researchers. "Although our efforts to block JAK enzymes were limited to cell cultures, our mouse model provides an inexpensive and efficient way to test newly developed JAK kinase inhibitors and other drugs," said Richard Williams, M.D., PhD, a research fellow in Sherr's laboratory and the lead author of the paper.

This work was supported in part by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, a National Institutes of Health Cancer Center Core Grant and ALSAC.

About: St. Jude Children's Research Hospital is internationally recognized for its pioneering work in finding cures and saving children with cancer and other catastrophic diseases. Founded by late entertainer Danny Thomas and based in Memphis, Tenn., St. Jude freely shares its discoveries with scientific and medical communities around the world. No family ever pays for treatments not covered by insurance, and families without insurance are never asked to pay. St. Jude is financially supported by ALSAC, its fund-raising organization.

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